Intro to Linguistic

 INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS

Prepared by

 Kem Soekemi

English Department

Faculty of Language and Arts

UNESA

UNIT I

INTRODUCTION

A. What is Linguistics?

     According to David Crystal (2001: 200), “Linguistics is the scientific study of language.” The subject matter of linguistics is a language; it is a social human behavior.

    Language is a social rather than a biological behavior.      Crystal further defines it that “language is the systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs, or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression” (2001: 184).  

         

    A language is a very complicated human behavior.

Raja T. Nasr (1984:1) defines it as follows: “Language is an acquired habit of systematic vocal activity representing meanings coming from human experiences” or “language is an acquired vocal system for communicating meanings”.

   W. Nelson Francis (1958: 13) defined it in the following way: “A language is an arbitrary system of articulated sounds made use of by a group of humans as a means of carrying on the affairs of their society”

   

B. Branches of Linguistics

    Since a language is so complicated, in order to study it systematically we have to study it level by level or branch by branch.

Based on the levels of language there are five major  

branches of linguistics: 1) phonetics, 2) phonemics, 3) morphology, 4) syntax, and 5) semantics. Each of them can be described later.

   Based on the way how a language is studied, there are two  

   kinds of linguistics:

1. Synchronic or descriptive linguistics: The study of language  

    at any given of time.

2. Diachronic or historical linguistics: The study of language change. It is a kind of linguistics that deals with changes that occur at a certain period of time.

Now when someone uses the term linguistics, it refers to synchronic linguistics.

C. Characteristics of Language:

1.    Language is arbitrary. It means that there is no direct connection between the nature of the things or ideas the language deals with and the words or combination of words by which these things or ideas are expressed. For example, in reality there are different words for the word mountain in English such as gunung, yama, berge, etc.

2.    The language is sound. The language is what people utter or hear. The spoken language comes before the written language.

3.    Language is systematic. Any language can be represented by a limited number of symbols.

4.    Language is a system of system. Each language consists of several levels. Each level is a system in itself.

5.    Language is meaningful. The sounds which are produced in a language are connected almost with every fact of human life and communication. There is a relation between the kinds of sounds the speakers of a language make and their culture. Through the learning of a language a child becomes an active member of the community.

6.    Language is conventional. Any linguistic unit is a part of language system. The use and formation of linguistic units are so regular that these units seem to be used according to an agreement among the speakers.

7.    Language is a system of contrasts. The contrasts in a language include: consonants >< vowels, voiced >< voiceless, big >< small, the >< a, singular >< plural, affirmative >< negative, etc.    

         

8.    Language is creative. By using a finite number of rules a native speaker can generate an infinite number of utterances.

9.    Language is unique. Since languages are arbitrary, each language is unique. For instance, reduplication is a common phenomenon in Indonesian languages, but the way reduplication is realized in these languages is different from one language to another.

10 Languages are similar. Apart from various differences

          that belong to languages, all languages have many

          things in common.

D. Exercise I

     1. What is meant by stating that a language is arbitrary?

     2.  What is meant by language is creative?

     3.  Compare synchronic linguistics with diachronic

          linguistics.

     4. What is meant by historical changes?

     5. What is meant by language is unique?

     6.  What is meant by language is a system?

     7.  What is meant by language is a system of systems?

     8. What is meant by language is a system of contrasts?

     9. What is meant by languages are similar?

    10. What is the difference between a language and a dialect?         

UNIT II

PHONETICS

A. Definition

     Phonetics is a branch of linguistics dealing with sound  

features or qualities and their arrangement into speech sounds or phones (Francis, 1958: 30)

or

“The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds” (Yule, 2006: 30).

     A sound is something that can be heard. Sounds can be classified into speech sounds (sounds which are used in a language) and non speech sounds (sounds which are not used in a language).

   

     The examples of speech sounds are: [i, u, n, s, p]. Speech sounds are usually produced by human speech organs (tongue, teeth, lips, palate, vocal cords, larynx, etc.). Not all sounds that are produced by human speech organs are speech sounds. 

  

    The examples of non speech sounds are sounds of coughing, clapping hands, snatching fingers, etc.

      

 B. Three Branches of Phonetics

         There are three branches of phonetics:

     1. Articulatory phonetics: It is the study of the way how  

speech sounds are made by human vocal organs.

2. Acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of  

    speech sounds as transmitted between mouth and ear.

3. Auditory phonetics: It studies the perceptual response to

    speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve and 

    brain.

C. Examples of Sound Features        

    Table 2. 1: Sound features of English stop consonants

S. F.	p	t	k	b	d	g
Vocalic	-	-	-	-	-	-
Cons.	+	+	+	+	+	+
Continuant	-	-	-	-	-	-
Strident	-	-	-	-	-	-
Nasal	-	-	-	-	-	-
Voiced	-	-	-	+	+	+
Anterior	+	-	-	+	-	-
Coronal	-	+	-	-	+	-

D. Three Main Types of Speech Sounds

     According to the degree to which the air stream from the lungs is blocked, there are three main types of speech sounds.

1. Stops

When an articulator is brought firmly against a point of articulation so that the air is firmly blocked, the resulting sound is stop or a plosive. A special class of stops are affricates. These sounds are produced when the closure of a stop is released gradually rather than abruptly.

Examples of stops: [p, b, t, d, k, g, ?]. 

     Examples of affricates: [c, j].

2. Fricatives

    When an articulator is brought so close to a point of articulation that the air passing between them produces frictional noise, the resulting sound is called fricative or spirant.

Examples: [f, v, s, z, š, ž].

3. Sonorant

When an articulator is moved in a such a way that it neither stops the air steam nor constricts it in such a way to produce noise, the resulting sound is sonorant. Special classes of sonorant are vowels, semivowels, nasals, and laterals.

Examples: [i, a, e, u, o, w, y, m, n, l]

E. The Manners of Sound Articulation

      Based on the manners/ways of articulation, speech sounds are classified as follows:

1.    Stops: [p, b, t, d, k, g, ? ]

2.    Fricatives or sibilants: [f, v, ð  , ө  , s, z, š, ž,]

3.    Affricates: [č , j]

4.    Nasals: [m, n, ň, ŋ] 

5.    Lateral: [l]

6.    Vibrant: [r]

7.    Semi-vowel: [w, y]

F. The Points of Sound Articulation

     Based on the points/places of articulation, speech sounds are classified as follows:

1.    Bilabial: [p, b, m]

2.    Labio-dental: [f, v]

3.    Inter-dental: [ 0 , ð  ]

4.    Alveolar: [t, d, n, l]

5.    Alveolar-palatal; [s, z]

6.    Palatal: [j]

7.    Velar: [k, g]

8.    Glottal: [?, h]

G. Exercises II     

1. Mention the three branches of phonetics.

2. What is the scope of each?

3. In what way is articulatory phonetics relevant with teaching  

    pronunciation?

4. How are consonantal sounds classified?

5. What is meant by point of articulation?

6. What is meant by manner of articulation?

7. How are vowels classified?

8. What is the difference between sounds and speech sounds?

9. Explain each of the following terms:

     a. vocalic       b. sibilant     c. phonetic features    d. nasal

10. Describe the initial and final sounds of each of the following 

      words:

     a. voicing       b. examples     c. with         d. through

UNIT III

 PHONEMICS OR PHONOLOGY

   

A. Definitions of Phonemics or Phonology

        It is a branch of linguistics dealing with phones and their organization into groups or families, called phonemes, whose members are the significant sounds of speech (Francis, 1958: 30).

    George Yule (2006: 43) states that “Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.”

1. What is a phoneme?

     Raja T. Nasr (1984: 176) states that “A phoneme is the smallest part (unit) of speech that can be used to make a word different from another that is the same in every other way”.

   

      According to Nelson Francis (1958: 176), “A phoneme is a group of phone-types which are phonetically similar and either in complementary distribution on in free variation”.      

     

2. What is meant by in complementary distribution?

     H. A. Gleason (1965: 263) states that “Sounds are said to be in complementary distribution when each occurs in a fixed set of contexts in which none of the others occur”

Example:

1) pin            [p^h In]      [p -]

2) happy       [h^æ pi]      [-p-]         à /p/: Voiceless bilabial stop

3) nap           [n^æ p¬]     [-p ]                      consonant phoneme

3. What is an allophone?

     Francis (1958: 122) states that “Allophones are different phone types that make up a phoneme”; while Nasr (1984: 169) states that “An allophone is a phonetic variety (or non-contrastive phone) of a phoneme”.   

 

4. The English Phonemes

   According to Gleason (1965) there are 46 phonemes in English. Those phonemes can be classified as follows:

Diagram 3. 1: Classification of Phonemes

                                                                        1. Vowels (9)

                           

                             A. Segmental phonemes    2. Consonant (23)

                                       (34)

                                                                        3. Semi-vowel (2)

Phonemes

(46)                            

                                                                       1. Stress (4)

                             B. Supra S. P.                   2. Pitch (4)

                                    (12)                                                   

                                                                       3. Juncture (4)

 

Diagram 3. 2: Vowel Chart

	Front	Central	Back
High	I	I	U
Mid	E	ə	ə
Low		A

Diagram 3.3: English Consonant Chart

	Bila-bial	Labio-dental	Inter-dental	Alveolar	Alveo palatal	Velar	Glottal
Stops        vl. Vd.	p b			t d		k g	?
Affr. Vl Vd					c j
Fric. Vl. Vd.		f v	o	s z	š ž		h
Nasal Vd.	m			n		ŋ
Later. Vd.				l
Vibr. Vd.				r
Semi vowel	w				y

B. Rhythm

     Rhythm is the beat of a language. Crystal (2001: 290) defines that “Rhythm is the perceived regularity of prominent units in speech. It is stated in terms of such patterns as stressed vs. unstressed syllables (as in English), or long vs. short syllables (as in Latin)”

      In English rhythm is stress-timed, but in Indonesian rhythm is syllable-timed. In means that the time needed to pronounce a stretch of utterance between two primary stresses in  English are the same, no matter how many syllables there are.

Since in Indonesian rhythm is syllable-timed, the time needed to pronounce a stretch of utterance depends on the number of syllables.

Example:

(a) Can you SEE the DOCTOR?

(b) Can you SEE the tall DOCTOR?

(c) Can you SEE the tall and handsome DOCTOR?

B. Exercises III

     1. What are the stress phonemes?

     2. What are the pitch phonemes?

     3. What are the transitional juncture phonemes?

     4. What are the three terminal junctures?

     5. What is rhythm?

     6. Compare English rhythm with Indonesian rhythm.

     7. What are the names of the following phonemes?

          a. /?/       d. /!/

          b. /o/       e. /+/

          c. /4/        f. /’/

      8.  How many vowel phonemes are there in English?

           How do you classify them?

      9. How many consonant phonemes are there in English?

           How do you classify the?

      10. How many supra segmental phonemes are in English? 

            How do you classify them?

UNIT IV

 MORPHOLOGY OR MORPHEMICS

A. Definition

     Morphology or morphemics is a branch of linguistics dealing with the organization of phonemes into meaningful groups called morphs. It also concerns with the organization of these morphs into morphemes and the distribution of morphemes into words. 

     A morph is the smallest meaningful part of a language. As an example, the word skillfully can be segmented into three meaningful parts: skill – full – ly. Each part is a morph.

     A morpheme is a group of morphs that are semantically the same (it means that they have the same meaning) and in complementary distribution (it means that the distribution of one member makes the distribution of the other members complete).

     Allomorphs are sub-members of the same morpheme. As an example, in English the third person singular present-tense morpheme, {-Z3}, has three allomorphs: (1) /-s/, (2) /-z/, and (3) 

/-iz/, as illustrated in the following sentences:

a.    Jane cooks /kuks/ well.

b.    She plays /pleiz/ tennis regularly.

c.     She dances /da:nsiz/ skillfully.   

B. Classification of Morphemes

          A. Free Morpheme

Morphemes

                                                                    1. Derivational

                        B. Bound Morphemes       2. Inflectional

                                                                    3. Bound Base

C. Free Morphemes

     A free morpheme is a morpheme that can stand by itself. As examples, house, have, good, fast, the, can, for, etc. are free morphemes. While {en-}, {ex-}, {-Z1}, {-D1}, {-ing1}, etc. are bound morphemes, because they cannot stand by themselves.

     Bound morphemes are of three types: (a) suffixes, (b) prefixes, and (c) bound bases.

a.     Suffixes

Suffixes are either derivational or inflectional. Derivational suffixes may be final, while inflectional suffixes are always final. Derivational suffixes may change the parts of speech of the stems, while inflectional suffixes never change the parts 0f the stems.

Examples:

{-ly}, {-ness}, {-less}, {-eer} in slowly, happiness, homeless, and mountaineer.

{-Z1}, {-D1}, and {-ing1} in classes, walked, and drinking.

    b.  Prefixes

          Prefixes are always bound and they do not always change 

          the parts of speech of the stems.       

          Examples:

          {en-}, {de-}, {dis-}, {in-} in endanger, decode, disagree,

          infinite

     c.  Bound bases

          They are morphemes which serve as stems for

          derivational forms, but they never appear as free

          morphemes

          Examples:

          {-clude}, {-cieve}, {-sist} in include, receive, consist.

D. Derivational Suffixes >< Inflectional Suffixes

     1. Derivational suffixes may be final in the morpheme groups to which they belong, or they may be followed by other derivational suffixes or by inflectional suffixes.

Examples:

a. meaning        {-ing2}: derivational suffix.

b. meaningful   {-ful}   : derivational suffix.

c. meanings       {-Z1}   : inflectional suffix.

   2. Inflectional suffixes are always final in the morpheme groups to which they belong.

Examples:

a. She phoned me          {-D1}: inflectional morpheme.

b. Two books                 {-Z1}: inflectional morpheme.

c. I’m writing a book    {-ing1}: inflectional morpheme  

   3. Derivational suffixes always change the parts of speech of the stem, while inflectional suffixes never do.

Examples:

a.     mean (verb) + {-ing2} (noun derivational morpheme) -> meaning (noun).

b.    mean (verb) + {-ing1} (present participle inflectional morpheme) -> meaning (verb).

c.     book (noun) + {-Z1} (plural inflectional morpheme) -> books (noun).

 E. Derivational Suffixes

      1. Noun derivational suffixes.

       Examples:

a.    {-ee}: addressee, employee.

b.    {-eer}: auctioneer, mountaineer.

c.     {-er}: baker, hunter.

d.    {-ess}: hostess, stewardess.

e.     {-ist}: pianist, novelist.

2. Adjective derivational suffixes.

    Examples:

a. {-able}: eatable, reliable.

 b. {-al}: brutal, cultural.

 c. {-an}: Indonesian, Asian.

 d. {-ed}: cultured, landed.

 e. {-en}: golden, wooden.

       3. Verb derivational suffixes.

           Examples:

a.    {-en}: to darken, to deepen.

b.    {-fy}: to certify, to signify.

c.     {-ize}: Americanize, macadamize.

       4. Adverb derivational suffixes.

           Examples:

a.    {-ly}: greatly, slowly.

b.    {-wise}: lengthwise, sidewise.

F. Exercise IV

     1. Explain the following terms:

         a. morph             f. bound base

         b. allomorph       g. zero allomorph

         c. morpheme       h. stem

         d. suffix                i. base

         e. prefix                j. bound base

     2. Describe the allomorphs of the English plural morpheme.

     3. What are homophones? Give examples in your answer.

     4. What is a morphemic word? Use examples in your answer.

     5. What is a compound word? Use examples in your answer.

     6. How can you get morphs? Use examples in your answer.

     7.  Is a morph identical with a syllable? Use examples in

         your answer.

     8. How many morphs are there in the following words?

         a. London     b. went      c. was.    d. (many) fish

     9. Can a phone be a morph?  Use examples in your

         answer.

    10. How do you define a morpheme?

UNIT V

 INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES

A. Types of Inflectional Morphemes

      There are eight types of inflectional morphemes in English. Each of them can be presented as follows.

1. {-Z1}      : The Plural Morpheme

2. {-Z2}      : The Possessive Morpheme

3. {-Z3}      : The Third Person Singular Present Tense Morpheme

4. {-D1}     : The Past Tense Morpheme.

5. {-D2}     : The Past-participle Morpheme

6. {-ing1}   : The Present-participle Morpheme.

7. {-er1}     : The Comparative Morpheme.

8. {-est}     : The Superlative Morpheme.

B. The Allomorphs of the Plural Morpheme

     The distribution of the allomorphs of the plural morpheme is presented in the following diagram.

Diagram 5.1: The distribution of plural allomorphs

                                                     1) /-s/: two books      

                 a. Phonologically        2)  /-z/: many boys

                      conditioned

                      allomorphs             3)  /-iz/: four glasses

1. {-Z1}      

                                                     1) /-O/: many sheep 

                 b. Morphologically

                      Conditioned           2) /-en/: two oxen

                       Allomorphs

                                                     3) /-v. change-/: two feet

4)   /-v. ch. – en/: many children

                                                         

                                                                                                                                                    

                                                                 1) /-s/: Jack’s book

                                                                         

                             a. Phonologically        2) /-z/: Robin’s hat  

                                conditioned allor.    

2.     {-Z2}:                                              3) /-iz/: Rose’s dress

   (Possessive                                                 

    Morpheme)

                              b. Morphologically     1. /-0/: students’ books

                                   conditioned allor.

                                                    a. /-s/: John talks

3. {-Z3}: Third person               b. /-z/: Jane swims

    Singular present tense          

    morpheme

                                                    c. /-iz/: She sneeses

      This morpheme has three allomorphs and all of them are phonologically conditioned.

                                                        1) /-t/: He worked

                             a. Ph. C. A.        2) /-d/: She planned  

4. {-D1}                                           3) /-id/: She invited us.

     Past tense

    Morpheme                                    1) /-O/: She cut it

                             b. M.C.A:             2) /-v.ch.-/: Jack broke it

                                                           3) /-c. ch./: He sent it

                                                           4) /compl. ch./ I went home

C. Phonologically Conditioned Allomorphs

      The first three allomorphs of the plural morpheme are phonologically conditioned allomorphs. It means that the distributions of the allomorphs are determined by the preceding phonemes. The first allomorph, /-s/, is used when the preceding phoneme is a voiceless consonant, except a hissing sound; the second phonologically conditioned allomorph, /-z/, is used when the preceding phoneme is a vowel or a voiced consonant, except an hissing sound; and the third phonologically conditioned allomorph, /-iz/, is used when the preceding phoneme is a hissing sound.

D. Morphologically Conditioned Allomorphs    

     These allomorphs are allomorphs whose distributions are determined by the preceding morphemes.  The first morphologically conditioned allomorph, /-0/, is used when the preceding morpheme is sheep or fish. The second morphologically conditioned allomorph, /-en/, is used when the preceding morpheme is ox. The third morphologically conditioned allomorph, /-vowel change-/, is used when the preceding morpheme is foot, tooth, mouse, ma, etc. There are other morphologically conditioned allomorphs which are not included in this summary.      

  

E. Exercise V

     1. What is a derivational morpheme?  Use examples in your

          answer.

     2. What is an inflectional morpheme? Use examples in your

          answer.

     3. Compare derivational morphemes with inflectional

         morphemes and use examples in your answer.

     4. How do you describe the allomorphs of the plural

         morpheme in English?

     5. How do you describe the allomorphs of the third-person

         singular present-tense morpheme?

6.      What does {-D3} symbolize for? Use examples in your

     answer.

7.      What does {-ing2} symbolize for? Use examples in your

     answer.

8.      What does {-ing3} symbolize for? Use examples in your

     answer.

     9.  How do you classify affixes in Indonesian? 

    10. Are there inflectional morphemes in Indonesian?

UNIT VI

 MORPHOPHONEMICS

A.  What is Morphophonemics?

Morphophonemics is a branch of linguistics dealing with various kinds of morphophonemic changes. Morphophonemic changes are phonemic changes when two or more morphemes are combined into a single word.

     In English there are ten types of morphophonemic changes. Each of them is described briefly as follows:

B. Kinds of Morphophonemic Changes

1.    Loss of phoneme

One or more phonemes that are present in the normal allomorph may be missing in another allomorph.

Examples:

{in-} -> /i-/ in irregular, illegal.

{-Z2} -> /-0/ in students’, pianists’.

2.    Addition of phoneme

One phoneme which is not present in the normal allomorph may be added to another allomorph.

           Examples:

a.     The phoneme /-n-/ is added to the normal form of {solemn} pronounced /solem/ in solemnize.

b.    The phoneme /-g-/ is added to the normal form of {long} in {longer} and {longest}.

3.    Consonant change

A consonant changes to another consonant. A very common type of consonant change is voicing, a voiceless consonant changes to a voiced consonant.

Examples:

a.     The phoneme /-0/ is changed into /-th-/ in {paths}

b.    The phoneme /-s-/ is changed to /-z-/ in {resist}. 

4.    Assimilation: A phonemic change which takes place when two morphemes are combined   results in neighbouring phonemes becoming more like each other.

     Examples:

a.     The negative prefix {in-} becomes /im-/ in impossible, imbalance.

b.    The prefix {en-} becomes /em-/ in empower, embitter.

5.    Dissimilation: The dissimilation takes place when two morphemes are combined results in neighbouring phonemes becoming less like each other.

Examples:

The negative prefix {in-} becomes /ig-/ in ignoble, ignominious

6. Synthesis: It is the fusion of two consonants into a single new phoneme.

Examples:

a.     /-t-/ + /-y-/ becomes /-e/ in nature

b.    /-s-/  + /-y-/ becomes /-s-/ in pressure

7. Change of syllabic vowel or diphthong

It is the substitution of another syllabic vowel or diphthong for the one which appears in the normal allomorph.

Examples:

a.     /-e-/ à /-ou-/  in swell becomes swollen.

b.    /-iy-/  -> /-e-/  in please becomes pleasant.

8. Stress shift: It usually happens when a certain affix is added  

      to a word.

    Examples: 

a.     Syntax à syntactic

b.    Linguist à linguistic

9. Gradation: When the process of derivation involves a stress shift; it usually also involves certain types of vowel change.   

 Examples: instrument   à instrumental

                    Refer             à reference

10. Suppletion: It is the occurance of an allomorph completely different in its phonemic structure from the normal form.

Examples: ox + {-Z1} à  oxen

                   Go + {-D1} à went.

B.    Exercise VI.

1.    What is morphophonemics?

2.    Compare assimilation with dissimilation and use examples in your answer.

3.    Give other examples of assimilation in English.

4.    Give other examples of synthesis in English.

5.    What kinds of morphophonemic changes are found in each of the following words: a. glasses   b. lice   c. was    d. students’

6.    Are morphophonemic changes universal? Use examples in your answer.

7.    Are morphophonemic changes common in Indonesia?

    Give examples in your answer.

8.    Is loss of phoneme common in Indonesia? Use examples in your answer.

9.    Does addition of phoneme occur in Indonesian?

          10.  Does assimilation occur in Indonesian?

UNIT VII

 MID-TERM EXAMINATION

A. Time: 100 minutes

B. Questions

     1. What is a language?

     2. What is linguistics?

     3. What are major branches of linguistics? Define each of

         them.

4. Describe each of the following terms: phone, allophone,

     and phoneme and use examples in your answer.

5. How do you classify English phonemes?

6. What is the scope of each branch of phonetics?

7. How do you classify English consonants?

8. Describe each of the following terms:

a. stop  b. Affricate  c. rounded   d. sonorant   e. voiced

   9. Compare English rhythm with Indonesian rhythm and

        use examples in your answer.

  10.  Compare assimilation with dissimilation and use

    examples in your answer.

UNIT VIII

 TERM - PAPER

A. Suggested Titles

a.     A Study of Phrase Structure Rules and Transformation Rules

b.    A Study of Tagmamic analysis

c.     A Comparative Study between Inflectional and Derivational English Morphemes

d.    Some Morphophonemic Changes in English

e.     A study of Word Classification in English

f.      A Study of I. C. Analysis

g.     A Study of Some Phrase Structure Rules in English

h.    A Study of Some Transformational Rules in English

i.       A Study of Tree Diagrams in English

j.       A Comparative Study between I. C. Analysis with Tree Diagrams

C.    Procedures

1.       Select a suitable title.

2.       Collect relevant references.

3.       Study the references individually as well as collectively.

4.       Make notes systematically.

5.       Formulate the outline of the paper carefully.

6.       Write the draft individually.

7.       Revise the draft carefully.

8.       Type your paper.

9.       Photo copy the paper.

10.  Hand in the photocopy of your paper on time.

UNIT IX

 DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES

(The Extension)

A. Four Derivational Prefixes

     There are four kinds of derivational prefixes.

    1. Noun prefixes

a.     {ante-} meaning ‘before’

Examples: antechapel, anteroom.

b.    {anti-} meaning ‘against’

Examples: antichrist, anti-Darwinism

c.     {auto-| meaning ‘self’

Examples: autobiography, autosuggestion.

d.    {co-} meaning ‘together’

Examples: co-education, co-heir.

e.     {counter-} meaning ‘against’

Examples: counter attack, counter revolution.

f.      {dis-} meaning ‘negative’

Examples: dishonour, distrust.

g.     {ex-} meaning ‘former’

Examples: ex-chancellor, ex-wife.

h.    {inter-} meaning ‘between, among’

Examples: intermarriage, inter-nation.

i.       {mis-} meaning ‘bad’

Examples: misconduct, misdemeanour

j.       {non-} meaning ‘negative’

       Examples: non-payment, non-aggression.

k.    {post-} meaning ‘ante, pre-}

Examples: post-war, post-reformation

l.       {pro-} meaning ‘supporting’

Examples: pro-German, pro-Boer

m.  {re-} meaning ‘again’

Examples: re-birth, re-incarnation.

n.    {semi-} meaning ‘half’

Examples: semicircle, semivowel.

o.    {sub-} meaning ‘under’    

       Examples: subway, subeditor.

p. {super-} meaning ‘above’

     Examples: superstructure, superman.

q.      {trans-} meaning ‘across’

Examples: transformation, transmigration.

2. Verb Prefixes

     a. {be-} meaning ‘somewhat intensive’

         Examples: bemoan, besmear.

b. {co-} meaning ‘together’

    Examples: co-operate, co-exist.

c.     {de-} meaning ‘to undo’ 

Examples: to decode, to detrain

d.    {dis-} meaning ‘negative’

Examples: to disagree, to disbelieve.

e.     {en-} meaning ‘to put into’

Examples: to enslave, to embitter.

f.      {mal-} meaning ‘badly’

    Examples: to maltreat, to malpractise.

g.     {mis-} meaning ‘wrongly’

Examples: to mismanage, to misread.

h.    {re-} meaning ‘again’

Examples: to rebuild, to reconsider.

i.       {trans-} meaning ‘across’

Examples: to transplant, to transship.

      j. {un-} meaning ‘negative’

Examples: to undress, to unearth.

3. Adjective prefixes

    a. {a-} meaning ‘denoting a state’

        Examples: adrift, asleep.

    b. {bi-} meaning ‘having two . . .’

         Examples: bisexual, bilingual.

    c.  {dis-} meaning ‘negative’

         Examples: disobedient, disreputable.

        d. {extra-} meaning ‘outside’

            Examples: extraordinary, extra-tropical.

         e. {hyper-} meaning ‘excessively’

             Examples: hyper-critical, hyper-sensitive.

         f. {semi-} meaning ‘half’

             Examples: semi-official, semicircle.

         g. {ultra-} meaning ‘beyond’.

              Examples: ultra-conservative, ultra-fashionable.

         h. {un-} meaning  ‘negative’

             Examples: unhappy, unkind

     4. Adverb Prefixes

         a. {a-} meaning ‘toward’

              Examples: ashore, aside

b. {be-} meaning ‘in a certain position’

     Examples: below, behind.

B. Four Kinds of Derivational Suffixes.

    1. Noun Derivational Suffixes.

       a. {-ee} denoting ‘the person affected by the action’

           Examples: addressee, employee.

      b. {-eer} denoting ‘the person concerned with’

 Examples: auctioneer, mountaineer.      

     c. {-er} forming ‘a agent noun’

Examples: baker, hunter.

     d. {-ess} denoting ‘a female person’

Examples: hostess, stewardess.

     e. {-ist} denoting ‘a player’ or ‘writer’

         Examples: pianist, novelist.

f.      {-ette} forming ‘a diminutive thing’

g.     Examples: kitchenette, leaderette.

Examples: booklet, leaflet.

{-let} meaning ‘diminutive’

h.    {-ling} meaning ‘young’

Examples: duckling, seedling.

i.       {-age} expressing ’collectivity’

Examples: peerage, cellarage.

j.       {-action} forming ‘a noun of action’

Examples: operation, stagnation.

k.    {-cy} forming ‘an abstract noun’

Examples: accuracy, constancy.

l.       {-dom} forming ‘a noun expressing condition’

       Examples: dukedom, freedom.

m.  {-ful} expressing ‘a collective noun’

Examples: handful, spoonful.

n.    {-hood} expressing ‘a family relation’

Examples: brotherhood, childhood.

o.    {-ing2} forming ‘a gerund’

            Examples: shipping, bedding.

p.    {-ism} expressing ‘a typical conduct’

Examples: despotism, patriotism.

q.    {-ity} forming nouns from adjectives.

Examples: identity, visibility.

{-ment} forming nouns expressing action.

r.      {-ness} expressing state.

s.      Examples: argument, treatment.

Examples: goodness, kindness.

t.       (-ry} expressing condition.

Examples: rivalry, slavery.

u.    {-ship} expressing state.

Examples: friendship, membership.

   2. Adjective Suffixes.

a. {-able} meaning ‘that can be {-D2}’

    Examples: eatable, reliable.

    b. {-al} meaning ‘pf the nature of’

Examples: brutal, cultural.

    c. {-an} changing geographical names into adjectives.

Examples: Indonesian, Asian.

    d. {-D3} meaning ‘having’

   Examples: cultured, landed.

   e. {-en} meaning ‘resembling’

       Examples: golden, wooden.

f.           {-ern} being added to the names of the points of the   .

Examples: eastern, western.

g.     {-ese} forming adjectives from some names of countries

     and towns.

     Examples: Japanese, Balinese.

h.    {-esque} being added to names of artists to express ‘after

     the manner of’

     Examples: Dantesque, Rembrandtesque.

i.       {-fold} having the sense of ‘multiflied’

Examples: twofold, tenfold.

j.       {-ful} expressing the ‘condition’

Examples: forgetful, hopeful.

k.    {-ian} expressing ‘belonging to the period of’

Examples: Shakespearian, Bloomfieldian.

l.       {-ic} forming adjectives from nouns.

Examples: economic, historic.

m.  {-ical} forming adjectives from nouns.

Examples: classical, political.

n.    {-ing3} forming adjectives from verbs.

Examples: amusing, interesting.

o.    {-ish} denoting nationalities.

Examples: Danish, Jewish.

p.    {-less} meaning ‘without’

Examples: faithless, merciless.

q.    {-like} forming adjectives from nouns.

Examples; goldlike, ladylike.

r.      {-ly} meaning ‘having the qualities of’

Examples: cowardly, manly.

s.      {-ous} forming adjectives from nouns.

       Examples: dangerous, nervous.

t.       {-some} having the sense of  being productive.

Examples: burdersome, fearsome.

u.    {-th} added to cardinal numerals to form the 

     corresponding ordinals.

     Examples: fourth, ninth.

v.    {-ward} expressing directions.

Examples: backward, eastward.

w.  {-y} meaning ‘full of’ or ‘composed of’.

Examples: bony, fishy.   

3. Verb Suffixes.

     a. {-en} forming verbs from adjectives.

         Examples: to darken, to deepen.

     b. {-fy} meaning ‘to make’.

Examples: to certify, to signify.

     c. {-ize} forming verbs from proper names.

Examples: Americanize, macadamize.

4. Adverb Suffixes.

     a. {-ly} forming adverbs of manner.

         Examples: greatly, decidedly.

     b. {-wise} or {-ways} forming adverbs from nouns.

Examples: crabwise, lengthways. 

C. Exercise  IX

     1. How many kinds of derivational prefixes are there in 

         English? And what are  they?

     2. Describe the following symbols: {-ing1}, {-ing2}, and

         {-ing3} 

     3. Describe the following symbols: {-D1}, {-D2}, and {-D3}.

     4. How many kinds of derivational suffixes are there in 

         English? And what they? 

  5. What is a bound base? Use examples in your answer.

6. What is the difference between a stem and base? Use 

     examples in your answer.

     7. Does every derivational prefix change the part of speech

                      of the stem? Use examples in your answer.

8. Does every derivational suffix change the part of speech?

    Use examples in your answer.

9. How many kinds of affixes are there in English?

10. How many kinds of affixes are there in Indonesian?

UNIT X

 WORD CLASSES

A. Traditional Grammar

     Crystal (2001, 138) states that “Traditional Grammar refers to the range of attitudes  and methods found in the prelinguistic era of grammatical study, and especially in the European school grammars of the 18^th and 19^th centuries”.  Most traditional grammarians classified words into 10 parts of speech.

  1. Nouns: tree, duck, mammal, water, poverty.

  2. Verbs: write, think, fly, are, shall.

  3. Adjectives: red, sweet, bright, my, your.

  4. Adverbs: slowly, softly, anew, (to work) hard, (to run) fast.

  5. Pronouns: I, me, mine, you, yours.

  6. Numbers: one, two, three, first, second, third,     

  7. Prepositions: from, by, in, below, under.

  8. Conjunctions:

      a. Coordinators: and, or, but, yet, either . . . or, neither . . . 

          nor.

      b. Subordinators: because, since, although, because of, 

 despite.

  9. Articles:

      a. Definite: the

      b. Indefinite: a/an

10. Interjection: Oh, alas, bravo, oh my God.

B. Structural Linguistics

     Structural Linguistics refers to the emphasis on the processes of segmenting and classifying utterances promoted by Leonard Bloomfield in the 1930s.

      The structural linguists classify words into two groups:

I. Content Words:

   The content words are the words which carry lexical meanings in themselves, such as house, to read, dangerous, and slowly. 

There are four classes of them.

1. Nouns: lion, boy, truth, she, me.

2. Verbs: to walk, to think, to grow, to divide, to copy.

3. Adjectives: cheap, bright, small, healthy, successful.

4. Adverbs: slowly, skillfully, (to work) hard, (to go) fast. 

II. Function Words:1

      Function words are the words which have little or no lexical meaning, but they serve chiefly to indicate grammatical relationships.

   There are nine types of them:

a. Noun determiners: They are words that regularly occur before nouns. Examples: a, the, my, this (book), and your.   

b. Auxiliaries or helping verbs: am, do, have, must, will.

c. Qualifiers: Words that qualify adjectives or adverbs, limiting or intensifying their meanings. Examples: Very, quite, rather, somewhat, most.

d. Prepositions which can be classified into:

    1) Simple: in, at, with, after,on.

    2) Compound: due to, together with, out of, inside.  

    3) Phrasal: by means of, in front of, on account of, in line 

        with.

e. Coordinators are the words which join two grammatically  

    parallel structures. Examples: and, or, and but.

f.  Interrogators which can be classified into two groups.

    1) Simple interrogators: when, what, how, where, why.

    2) Interrogative pronouns: who, whom, whose, whoever.

g.  Subordinators or includers: because, although, since, either  . . . or, neither . . . nor.

h. Sentence linkers: consequently, in fact, at least, last but not least.

i. Miscellaneous types which can be divided into:

    1) Attention claimers: hey, oh.

    2) Attention signals: yes, yeah, uh-huh, unh-unh.

    3) Responses: yes, no, maybe, O.K.

    4) Infinitive marker: to (go).

    5) Negator: not.

    6) Hesitators: well, uh-h, um-m.

C. Exercises IX.

     1. How do you classify Nouns Determiners?

     2. What is the special function of Noun Determiners?

     3. How do you classify auxiliaries?

     4. What is the special function of auxiliaries?

     5. What are qualifiers?

     6. What is the difference between coordinators and 

         subordinators?

     7. What are miscellaneous types of function words?

     8. How do you classify them?

     9. Classify each word used in the following sentence.

          Sumerian is the oldest known language to be preserved  

          in written form, spoken in southern Mesopotamia until

          the 2^nd millennium BC.

     10. Which word-classification do you apply? What are your 

         reasons?

    

UNIT XI

 IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS

      Immediate Constituent Analysis (I. C. Analysis) is a kind of analyzing the English language, which is based on the assumption that any English syntactic structure can be cut into two immediate constituents.

     Based on the immediate constituents, there are four basic types of syntactic structures. Each type can be described as follows:

 

A. Four Basic Types of Syntactic Structure.

1. Structure of Modification

    This type of syntactic structure consists of two components parts or two immediate constituents: a) head (H) and modifier (M).

   Examples:

 

   a.         native              à      speakers

            

                  M                                H

 

   b.          competent      à      readers      

                     M                             H

  c.             people        ß           here

                     H                               M

 

  d.             working        ß          individually

                      H                                     M

2. Structure of Predication

     This type of syntactic structure consists of two components or two immediate constitutions (ICs): a) Subject (S) and b) Predicate (P).

  Examples:

 

a.        Money         P         talks

              S                              P

 

b.       Power         P         corrupts

              S                               P

 

c.        Do      you         P    smoke?   

 

          P           S                            P

3. Structure of Complementation.

     This type of syntactic structure consists of two immediate constituents (IC): a)Verbal element (V) and b) Complement ©. 

   Examples:

 

a.     Tell           C          the truth

          V                              C

 

b.       Be            C           careful

           V                               C

 

c.       Do         C         your work

           V                              C

4. Structure of Coordination.

    This type of syntactic structure consists of two or more syntactically equivalent units joined in a structure which functions as a single unit.

Examples:

 

a.        red          white       and      blue

                     

 

b.       pins        and         needles

B. Exercise XI

1.   What is meant by an immediate constituent?

       Use examples in your answer.

2. What is I. C. Analysis?

3. What is the theory behind it?

4.  What is a split structure? Use examples in your answer.

5. What is meant by an ultimate constituent? Use examples in your answer.

6. Apply the I. C. Analysis to analyze the following syntactic structures:

   a. barbed wire

   b. the day shift

   c. Indonesia now

   e. a way of doing

   f. slightly off pitch

7. Apply the I. C. Analysis to analyze the following syntactic structures:

   a. Courtesy always pays.

   b. He got killed.

   c. Now is too soon.

   d. To err is human.

   e.  Whatever is true.

8. Apply the I. C. Analysis to analyze the following:

    a. We are learning linguistics.

    b. The man became happy.

    c.  We caught and ate the snake.

    d.  The meat is canned’

    e.  I know he is true.     

 

UNIT XII

FIVE TYPES OF SYNTACTIC SIGNALS

A. Five Types of Syntactic Signals

     There are five types of syntactic signals that speakers use to build content words into larger organized combinations or structures.

    The five types of syntactic signals are: 1) Inflectional suffixes, 2) Derivational affixes, 3) Word order, 4) Function words, and 5) Prosodic patterns.

     Each of them can be described briefly as follows:

1. Inflectional Suffixes

     Since in Unit V Inflectional Suffixes have been described adequately, there is no need to discuss them here.

2. Derivational Affixes

     In Unit IX Derivational Prefixes and Derivational Suffixes have been adequately, there is no need to describe them further.

3. Word Order.

     Words are organized into phrases in more or less fixed orders. There are five general types of phrases;

a.     Phrases

1) Noun Phrases (NP): In which the more/most prominent  

          part is a noun.

          Examples: high mountains, a private school, a school  

          boy, various flowers.

    2) Verb Phrases (VP): In which the more/most prominent  

        part is a verb.

          Examples: to buy a car, to speak slowly, to think deeply,     

          to make money.

    3) Adjective Phrases (Adj P): In which the more/most

       prominent part is an adjective.

        Examples: very poor, rather old, quite good, pretty tall.

   4) Adverb Phrases (Adv P): In which the more/most

        prominent is an adverb.       

         Examples: very slowly, almost successful, far away, not

          always.

   5) Prepositional Phrases (PP): It is a phrase that begins with a 

       preposition.

        Examples:

        in the box, on time, inside the house, below zero

b.    Sentences:

    To put words or phrases together to make sentences, a speaker has to know that basically an English sentence  contains a subject and a predicate. The subject is usually a noun or a noun phrase, and the predicate is usually a verb or verb phrase.

   Examples:

  1) John swims.

  2) She saw a whale.

  3) The weather turned cloudy.

  4)  His father is strict but pleasant.

  5)  My husband and I do the exercises every week.

4. Function Words

     In Chapter X, the description of Function Words has been presented, so that it is not necessary to describe them again.

5. Prosodic Patterns.

    There are three types of supra segmental phonemes in English: a) stress, b) pitch, and c) juncture. They are combined into sequences called prosodic patterns.

       Prosodic patterns are very important in solving some ambiguous expressions.

   Examples:

a.  Verbs        versus          Nouns

     import                            import

     suspect                           suspect

     contract                         contract

     imprint                          imprint

b. Love blossoms in spring

    1)  /lAv || blAs mz in sprin #/ 

 

    2)  /lAv blAs mz | in sprin #/

     In 1) love is a noun, while in 2) love is a verb.

B. Exercise XII

     1. What are inflectional suffixes?

     2. How do you classify them?

     3. How do you classify derivational affixes?

     4. How do you diasbiguate the following sentences?

         a. Visiting relatives can be a nuisance. 

         b. He greeted the girl with a smile.

     5. Compare base adjectives with derived adjectives and use 

          examples in your answer.

      6. Which one is longer a phrase or a sentence? Use

          examples in your answer.   

      7. A sentence may have two or more PPs. Give two 

          examples of this sentence.

      8. A sentence may have two auxiliaries. Give two examples  

          Of this type.

                   9. There are four pitch phonemes in English. What are 

          they?

    10. Describe all juncture phonemes in English.

UNIT XIII

SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION

There are three kinds of sentence classification: a) Based on their positions in conversations, b) Based on their contents and responses, and c) Based on their independency.

A. Sentence Classification based on their positions in

    Conversations, sentences are classified into:

    1. Situation sentence

        It is one that begins a conversation. It may also follow a

        call, greeting, exclamation, or the stereotyped response.

        Examples:

        a. Teacher  : “Good morning, every body”

             Students: “Good morning, sir”      

        b. Diana: “Hello, Jack”.

            Jack   : “Hello, Diana”

   

        “Good morning, every body” and “Hello, Jack” are 

        situation sentences.

   2.  Sequence sentence

        It is one that continues a conversation without change of

        speaker.

        Examples:

        a. Herman: “I was in London last year.

                             I studied English there for one year”.

            Erna      : “Did you?”

        b. Miss Jane: “I’m looking for Dr. Johnson. Do you know

                                him?  

            Peter       : “Yes I know him. He is in the library”

         

        “I studied English there for one year”, ”Do you know

         him?” and “He is in the library” are sequence sentences.

         sentence.

   3.  Response sentence

        It is a sentence that continues a conversation with a 

        change of speaker.

         Examples:

         a. Jane    : “When were you in Lombok?” 

             Brown: “I was there last year”

         b. Achmad: “Why haven’t you finished your assignment?

             Idris      : “But I finished it yesterday”

B. Based on the contents and responses. 

     1. Greeting

         A greeting is a sentence that is used in meeting or

         parting.

         Examples:

         a. Jack   : “Hello, Merry”

             Merry: “Hello, Jack”

         b. Liz     : “How are you to day?”

             Mike  : “Fine, thank”

        4.  John  : “See you to morrow”

              Jane  : “See you then”

    

         “Hello, Merry”, “How are you today?”, and “See you to

         morrow” are all greetings.

     2. Call

         A call is a brief sentence directed at claiming attention.

         Examples:

         a.Jane           : “Mother!”

             Mrs. Smith:  “What is wrong?”

         b. Mrs. Black: “Fire!”

             Mr. Black  : “Get away!”

         “Mother!” and “Fire!” are calls to attract people’s   

         attention.

     3. Exclamation

         It is a brief sentence with characteristic intonation to

         express surprise, fear, joy, etc.

         Examples:

a.     Dale: “Will you come to my place someday?

                  Jack: “Oh yes I will”

         b. John: “How was last night match?”

              Blake: “Bravo! Well played!”

         “Oh yes I will” and “Bravo! Well played!” are

          exclamations.   

 

     4. Question

          It is a sentence that elicits a linguistic response other than

          stereotyped response to greeting, calls, and exclamation.

          Examples:

           a. Teacher: “What did you do last night?”

                Student: “I finished my home work”

           b.  John     : “Where are you going?”

                 Jack     : “I’m going to post my letter”

    

          “What did you do last night?” and “I’m going to post my

          letter” are questions.

      5. Request

          It is a sentence that evokes an action response other than

          formalized gestures that follow greetings and calls.

          Examples:

           a. Please open your book.

           b. Come here, will you?

      

       6. Statement.

           It is a sentence  that evokes a linguistic or non-linguistic

           response called an attention – signal.

          Examples:

    a. I finished my work last night.

    b. They will get married very soon.   

C. Based on their independency, clauses or dependent 

sentences can be divided into three kinds:

     1. Included Clauses as Modifiers

         Examples:

         a. We heard the news the war was over.

         b. We arrived after you left.

         c.  So hungry that I could eat an ox.

     2. Included clauses as Subjects

         Examples:

         a. Who he is is a mystery.

         b. Whom she married is none of my business.

         c. What you do does not interest her.

     3. Included clauses as complements.

         Examples:

          a. Tell him that I am ready.

          b. That was how we learned the truth.

          c.  His father made Rudy Hartono what he is now.

D. Exercise XIII 

     1. Define and illustrate a situation sentence.

     2. Compare a situation sentence with response sentence.

     3. Describe a sequence sentence and use examples in your

         answer.

4.      How do statements characteristically differ from

     questions?

      5. How do questions characteristically differ from requests?

      6. Give your own examples of included clauses as modifiers.

      7. Give your own examples of included clauses as subjects.

UNIT XIV

PHRASE STRUCTURE RULES

A.  Phrase Structure Rules.

      Phrase structure rules are the rules that determine the basic constituent structures of a sentence. The two basic units of the English sentence are Noun Phrase and Verb Phrase. Linguists write this information in a short hand form known as Phrase Structure Rules.

      The three most basic rules are:

(1) S       à   NP +  VP

(2)  NP   à  Det. + N

(3)   VP  à  V     +  NP

      By using those three basic Phrase Structure Rules, we can produce so many sentences, such as:

(a) Power corrupts.

(b) The girl needs some money.

(c) She bought a dress.

(d) The cat caught a mouse.

(e) It ate the mouse.

B. Extended Basic Phrase Structure Rules

     But only by using those three basic Phrase Structure Rules, we cannot produce the following sentences.

(f) Power corrupts every where.

(g) The girl needs some money to buy food.

(h) She has bought a new dress.

(i) The cat caught a mouse in the garden.

(j) The cat ate the mouse on the grass.

      To enable us to produce such sentences, we have to extend the three Basic Phrase Structure Rules.

(1)    S    à    NP  +  VP

                                    Pro

(3)   VP     à  V   +    (NP)   +    (PP) 

                                     S

(4)   AP   à  (AP)   +    ADJ

(5)    PP    à   P     +      NP

Notes: S    : Sentence

            NP : Noun Phrase

            VP : Verb Phrase                           

            Det:  Noun Determiner

            AP :  Adjective Phrase

            Pro:  Pronoun

            PP :  Prepositional Phrase

C. Exercise XIV

1. Read the following Phrase Structure Rules:

    a. S  à  NP  +  VP

    b. NP  à  Det   +  (Adj)  +  N  +  S

    c. NP   à  Pro

    d. AP  à  (AP)  +  Adj.

    e.  PP   à  P  +   NP

2. Give two examples for each phrase structure rule.

3. Formulate the phrase structure rules for the following

    sentences:

a.    The professor’s assignment was shocking.

b.     The puppy found the child.

c.     The old tree swayed in the wind.

d.    The child put the toys in the large box.

e.     A frightened passenger landed the cripple airplane.

  

     4. How many noun phrases can you generate by using the

         following phrase structure rule?

         Give three examples of them.

5.      How many sentences can you generate by using the

     following phrase structure rule?

          Give three examples of them.

UNIT XV

TRANSFORMATION

      A transformation is a process of changing forms, from a deep structure toward a surface structure. A surface structure is a structure or form that is used in actual communication, while a deep structure refers to the meaning of the structure.

      A deep structure which is generated by phrase structure rules, becomes a surface structure through a transformation.

        

 Deep structure         Transformation       Surface structure

       Meaning              ========è           Form used in conv.    

A. Transformational Rules

      A transformation can be realized by applying a transformational rule. As an example. The surface structure: Jump! Is transformed from the deep structure: You jump, by applying a transformational rule: Imperative Deletion Transformation. It is a transformation that deletes the NP ‘you’.          

The transformational process can be illustrated by using the following diagram:

              Jump!            à   Surface Structure

                               

                                     à   Imperative Transformational Rule

               

          You jump         à    Deep structure   

Another examples is illustrated in the following diagram:

      Wash yourself!          à   Surface structure

                                          à   Imperative Transformational rule     

   You wash yourself       à   Intermediate structure

                                         à   Reflexive transformational rule

      You wash you           à   Deep structure

    

The Reflexive Transformational Rule can be applied when the sentence in question has two Noun Phrases which refer to the same object; such a pair of NPs is called a co-referential pair.

B. Simple Transformations

      There are three kinds of simple transformation in English: (1) adjunction, (2) substitution, and (3) contraction. Each kind can be illustrated as follows:

  1. Adjunction

      A simple transformation in English which makes use of the

      adjunction operation is the contraction transformation.

       Examples:

       a. He must not leave her   à He mustn’t leave her.  

       b. John cannot keep his promise   à John can’t keep his

           promise.

   2. Substitution

      An elementary substitution operation is clearly illustrated

      by the transformation which relates the following

      sentences.

          It is difficult for me to concentrate on calculus.

          Calculus is difficult for me to concentrate on.

      The noun phrase “calculus” in the second sentence is

      substituted for the noun phrase “it” in the first sentence.

  3. Deletion

 It is a basic operation which eliminates a constituent of syntactic structure. As examples, imperative transformation and reflexive transformation have been presented.